Performance Appraisals Influence Of Employee Attitudes - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 13 Words: 3957 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? If people read a limited number of articles on Performance Appraisal (PA), they will end up discovering that, huge arguments are kept with regard to PA. People may end up with conclusions that vary from, PA being so intrinsically defective that it could almost be impossible to perfect it. This as a result this could end up being the reason for an organization to end up in bad conditions that may eventually be the cause of its demise. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Performance Appraisals Influence Of Employee Attitudes" essay for you Create order This research takes a deeper look at PA as a whole, a few current as well as previous views on the process of giving feedback(appraising) will be revealed, which include the defining of traditional and developmental approaches. The most frequently used PA techniques will be taken into account as well. Later on, the author discusses the attitudes of employees and their behavior and existence, how they are formed and which of the particular attitudes and behaviors tend to be desirable ones that can, raise company performance. The effect of job related attitudes, satisfaction or dissatisfaction of jobs, will also be covered to perceive what are the pros and cons of a PA system, so as to make it easier to, understand the basic necessity of PA. In the final stages, the paper shall focus on, the effects of PA on different attitudes and at what time it would be appropriate to make use of which PA procedure to arrive at an anticipated target (attitude or behavior). Deliberations wit h regard to PA application will be taken into consideration to reduce any amount of ambiguity that may be in the minds of the reader. PA Although PA as a unique management system dates back from the 1940s, in a broader sense, the application of appraisal is a very antique art, appraisals come in the category of really old and long lasting professions.3 Through it citizens/society or the labor force are inclined to evaluate themselves along with others too. Describing PA In an organizational setting, PA could be described as a formally planned communication linking a employee and employer, which generally take the form of a sporadic interview once a year or more often, in which the performance of the concerned staff/employee with regard to their work is examined and discussed, along with a vision to identify the pros and cons including the likelihood for improvement and skill advancement. PA has been portrayed by Moorhead and Griffin (1992) as the process of evaluating work behaviors by measurement and comparison to previously established standards, recording the results, and communicating them back to the employee. It is an activity between an organizations manager and his/her employee.4 Performance Appraisal Systems (PAS) started in various companies as simplistic methods to decide whether an employees salary was justified or not. With the passage of time, different studies exposed with the purpose of pay rates as presumed before, were not the only factor that could have an influence on employee performance.3 Time proved that additional issues, like self-esteem and morale, may well also have a key impact. This ended up with the progressive rejection of importance of PA on the outcomes of rewards, and in the mid 90s, the prospective of PA as a means for motivation and development started to get acknowledged as another aspect with time. Appraisals within a company cause severe problems when they are carried out without any set of laws. If carried out in such a manner it can end up damaging the companys working environment and be the cause for the reduction in the proper output level, it may also can up being the cause of both legal and ethical troubles.3 Managers need to be conscious all the time of their doings and which consequences could it bring about when appraising performance. Within a large number of organizations, the link of the results of appraisal, have an impact on remuneration in some way. To be precise , the more finer the employee performs the more chances of him/her getting pay increments, bonuses or even promotions. On the other hand the employee whose performance is low might end up getting some advice on how to improve himself or herself or in more severe cases may end up in trouble by being demoted, getting a reduction in monthly/annual pay or even being dismissed from the company.3 Oberg has listed goals of PA programs, which are as follows: to assist supervisors to perform a coaching job in a more improved manner; to inspire the concerned employees by providing appraisal (feedback) on their performance; to make available the necessary data to help in administrative decisions like, increases or decreases in salary, removal from duty or even changing of working areas; to help pick up an organizations improvement by identifying the staff with promotion prospective; and finally to set up a study and indication base for human resources decisions.5 PA is an ingredient of a performance management that needs to be taken into consideration that includes activities to ensure that goals are consistently being met in an effective and efficient manner.6 When looked at carefully a variety of practices are involved in performance management besides those of PA. For example, performance management is involved in, performance improvement of employees, training and cross training, performance development, career development/coaching.7 AdoptedfromSource:https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enHYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performance appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=wiHYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performance appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=wiq=performance%20appraisalHYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performance appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=wiHYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performance appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=wium=1HYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performan ce appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=wiHYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performance appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=wiie=UTF-8HYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performance appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=wiHYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performance appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=wisa=NHYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performance appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=wiHYPERLINK https://images.google.com.pk/images?hl=enq=performance appraisalum=1ie=UTF-8sa=Ntab=witab=wi There are researchers as mentioned earlier, who believe that Performance Appraisals (PAs) have never shown to be a reason for performance improvement. Rather they believe that PAs are used in organizations today only for the documentation of poor performance (a step that leads to the terminating process).8 Traditional vs. Developmental PA Methods Scholars have mentioned that, there have been two methods to PA. These include the traditional and the developmental methods. Traditional methods basic concern was in general with the organization as a whole, which is involved with the past performance. On the other side the developmental method, considers the staff as individuals along with being a bit more constructive by looking forward through the use of setting goals.9 The traditional method of PA used for various purposes, such as promotion, feedback to employees, reward decisions etc On the other hand the developmental method to PA brings about additional purposes, like providing the organization or company staff the chance to officially specify their direction and ambition, presenting the concerned organizational interest in staff/employee improvement, and to provide the employees who are literally trying to perform well, with satisfaction and encouragement.9 PA Methods There are various methods of Performance Appraisals (PAs), such as Annual Confidential reports (ACRs), essay methods, Management By Objectives (MBO), etc 5 Every PA procedure has, its own mixture of strengths and weaknesses, thus they ought to be used in relevance to the desired goals to make the procedure used more effective. PA software has been used in different parts of the world. It is also referred to as electronic performance monitoring.11 It tends to reduce the time to get through the appraisal process, which eventually helps management of organizations save time and money.12 But this method has also come under a lot of argument that it is not correct as, it stops the communication link between the employer and employee, due to which many term this process as ineffective and a waste of money and time.13 Employee Attitudes and Behaviors What is an attitude? An attitude may be described as a learned predisposition to respond in consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object (Kreitner and Kinicki, 1992).14 Moorhead and Griffin (1992) suggest two views of attitudes: Dispositional view implies that attitudes are steady dispositions toward an object. Putting this in mind, attitudes have three fundamental components: influence (affecting sense toward the object), cognition (the opinion of the information about the object) along with the purpose (an planned behavior toward the object). Situational vision contends that attitudes develop from publicly constructed realities.4 Attitudes on the whole are formed through the passage of time that could, be changed and might be influenced through an administrator/manager. A tool that is used for the initiation of attitude change is PA. However, there is an important finding that states: a result of research of 5,000 middle-aged male employees portrays that their job attitudes as a whole seem to be very stable over a period of five years.14 Job-associated attitudes The way Employees interact or their attitude that they depict is very essential for an organization, as employee interaction and attitude tends to show the way to the preferred behaviors. Moorhead and Griffin (1992) talk about two main job-related attitudes, that are, the level of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. They describe this with following in mind, a persons attitude toward his/ her job. If the attitude is positive, the employees under the spot light are said to be satisfied. Dissatisfaction on the other hand comes into being, when the attitude is negative.4 These attitudes tend to take place due to the following three factors. The first factor being, organizational factors, for example, promotion opportunities, the work itself, working conditions and pay, the second factor involves grouping factors that comprise of, coworkers and supervisor; while the third factor focuses on personal factors for example, contributory benefits, needs, and ambitions.4 The attitudes of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are extremely crucial, as both have the tendency to persuade how good employees, and therefore as a result an organization perform. In general the attitude of Job satisfaction tends to lead towards the desired course of action like, low absenteeism rate of the staff. Whereas if employee attitude leads to job dissatisfaction, that infers to the fact that, the rate of employee absenteeism, increases.4 Moorhead and Griffin (1992), mention additional attitudes that are essential and work related. These comprise of Involvement and Commitment. Involvement describes a persons willingness as an organizational citizen to go beyond the standard demands of the job. On the other hand Commitment may be said to be the concerned individuals feelings of identification with and dedication to the organization,4 The Influence Performance Appraisals can have on Employees Attitudes Previously the author has mentioned several types and techniques of PA, along with the attitudes that an employee may possess. This portion of the paper tends to focus on presenting how appraising performance can have, an influential effect on both the employees attitudes and behavior. Archer North offer suggestions that state that just individual recognition (appraising performance) alone, could end up leading to a higher rate of job satisfaction and reduce the absenteeism. People the whole tend to prefer negative feedback rather than no feedback/recognition at all.3 With the help of traditional methods of appraisals, managers/supervisors rate the performance of the concerned employee annually. This usually tends to reflect the recent events, which turn out to be a huge disadvantage.15 As managers lack communication with the concerned employees during the year, and this tends to mess things up. This usually causes the concerned employee being faced with the complete list of the flaws he/she made during the year, which also creates an uncomfortable situation for the concerned employee.13 With the due passage of time the 360-degree feedback system was introduced. Dezenzo and Robbins (2002) describe the 360-degree process as an appraisal devise that seeks performance feedback from such sources as oneself, bosses, peers, team members, customers, and suppliers has become very popular amongst contemporary organizations.15 The consequences of specific PA procedures may have on employee attitudes The correct or appropriate decision on what PA method is to be used is vital for the rest of the procedure. For the sake of employee motivation through the use of giving them feedback with regard to their work, work-standards or the MBO approach could be superior quality picks. But this is possible only with the involvement of real participation, as only then would it be able to lead towards internal commitment to improved performance.5 The MBO method of PA could, defeat a few of the problems that arise after supposing that the employees traits needed for the job at hands achievement can be dependably known and calculated. The MBO technique tends to center its focus on actual outcomes. As a result this method might provide a sense of autonomy, satisfaction and achievement for the employees. On the contrary this method could also be counterproductive by leading to impractical hope concerning what can and cant be rationally done.3 Time has revealed that through the setting of g oals we can achieve a major milestone in employee motivation. Goals are able to inspire employees effort, center attention, boost determination, and encourage them to figure out enhanced ways to work.18 To show what effects PA may have on employee attitudes, a study which concentrated on Matthew effect is to be used. Matthew effect is supposed to take place where the concerned staff tends to keep getting the same appraisal results, year after year. Meaning that, their appraisal results tend to become self-fulfilling: if they have performed well, they will carry on to do well; if they have done poorly, they will carry on to do poorly. This study that concentrated on the Mathew Effect discovered, a degree of frustration escalating due to biased PA. If we apply the Matthew effect to the workforce then we would be able to observe that a majority of good performers would end up happy with the appraisal system, while a majority of low performers would feel the system corrupt. When e mployees get a good appraisal or who themselves are high performers, the answer that you are likely to get to a question like does your supervisor listen to you and does he/she support you?, would be yes. On the other hand if the same question is asked from low performers a majority would answer no to the same question. When looked at carefully its very vital to give the low performers a chance to improve their appraisal results. If this chance of improvement isnt allowed then there is a very severe defect in the appraisal system as a whole.19 Many authors have the opinion, out of which Heathfield is one, that, employees usually turn defensive when their performance is under assessment. Differences about involvement and performance ratings can produce a argument ridden condition that can go on for months to come.16 Through studies conducted by the author, negative feedback from PAs can be a cause of the employees motivational level to stand at zero which may cause the employee s to perform worse. It is usually that staff which tend to comprise a level of high self-esteem to be able to get inspired through criticisms that, they take positively to develop their overall performance.5 A study conducted by Baron states that, harsh condemnation, that tends to be inexplicit, unjust or sternly presented will tend to lead to troubles like rage, bitterness, strain and conflict within the workplace, along with an eventual rise in the resistance for betterment, refutation of difficulties, and inferior performance.20 With the view above mentioned implications it needs to curtain these implications very seriously. Here it could be said that the appraising personality delegate his/her powers to a person who uses the process of appraisal as an opportunity of how things can be done in a better manner which would also eventually improve the overall working style or performance of the whole company or organization at hand. According to Levy, Cawley and Foti The tradi tional top-down approach to PA has been targeted time and again for not being able to hold a steady/satisfactory pace with the progress toward more participative companies or organizations of the last decade. The impact of this is that many organizations have had to adopt newer PAS which end up utilizing numerous feedback sources, the 360-degree feedback systems is a good example. Therefore the author believes its essential that the appraiser/appraisers need to be well-informed and dependable. When this happens, only then we can end up with better chances that the employees tend to overall visualize the concerned appraisal process as accurate and fair. If this ends up being the case then, there is a chance that employees will tend to acknowledge and even confirm their acceptance with regard to the evaluators appraisal and as a result will increase their readiness to improve for the better.21 Different research studies have shown the likelihood of employees to feeling more gratifi ed with their feedback result which we often term as the appraisal result if the concerned staff discussed here is provided with the opportunity to freely express and tends to even present their performance with the concerned party. When done, the chances of the concerned employees improving their performance for the better increases along with their potential to meet future performance, as the discussion with the concerned parties also increases the chances of the workers know what is required from them.22 Standards of comparison need to be present. As employees consider it essential to find out the performance of their duties and the area that asks for improvement or in other words the areas in which improvement is required. Essentially at this point we need to place the thought in mind that appraisals are not associated with condemnation (criticism). On the whole the fact could prove vital, which is to make clear the significance of finishing responsibilities inside the sugges ted timelines or even through the change in procedure if required of doing a task, to get the work done correctly. Regrettably, many PAs end up frustrating the concerned employees by the accumulation of additional responsibilities to what seems to be an already overloaded program.23 Anyone who is involved in giving PAS needs to be conscious of those staff that are always in the hunt of feedback. This declaration as revealed by Larson, whilst low performing employees pursue to get feedback from his/her immediate boss or even the superior at unusual times, when the concerned party to give feedback is not really ready to give an accurate or frank assessment. At the time when such a situation arises a manager tends to provide encouragement. The problem tends to arise at the appraisal time when the employee tends to recall all the encouragement given by the appraiser before the appraisal. As if the appraisal is negative the employee, considers the appraiser untrustworthy and therefore could consider his/her appraisal as being out of track. This in turn could get the appraisers in a fix that, might then force them to defend themselves, and could give a false appraisal that makes the employee satisfied. This incident could be simply avoided if, the appraiser informs the, feedback-seeker appraise to appear at another time when the appraiser is free.24 Considerations that could provide a link of performance appraisal with regard to compensation Those scholars, who believe in PA, as bring about big considerations that ask whether PA ought to be linked to compensation. The main blow against the linking of PA from reward decisions is the thought that this link might end up building a frightening and a theoretically disciplinary system.3 Another confrontation as described by Archer North, is that the linkage of compensation tends to dissolve the essence progressive appraisals. This can be proved through the fact that a majority of employees/workers would not admit their work. Specifically when, their contract renewal date is just around the corner.3 One should never forgo the fact that the rater feels a sense of tension or nervousness when they have to do an appraisal. Specially, if both the appraiser and appraise have good terms with each other outside work. As both the appraiser and appraises relation can be destroyed in the event of a negative appraisal being given. This itself could create enough damage to the workp lace environment that the productivity of the organization as a whole could be hampered.3 Although all this portrays is that appraisals should not be linked to compensation, there are scholars who believe that the link should be there. Their thought follows the motion that there is a need to have a smooth system where one can fairly link compensation. They tend to believe that PA is a unique and one of its kind system, through which they can end up giving compensations to all in a fair and just manner. Many employees/workers who tend to get compensations properly, consider PA as a trustworthy way to get their due compensations.3 This has further been acknowledged through a research by both Bannister an Balkin where they found out that appraisees feel more comfortable when appraisals have a direct link to compensation.25 While a study conducted by some scholars had the following finding; Using a sample of more than 15,000 employees, we found that pay satisfaction is the highest wh en performance pay is tied to the employees performance and the lowest when there are no performance appraisals in organizations, even if there is performance pay.26 Conclusion Recommendations PAS are useful rather than useless as some scholars mention. Though with proper care and time given to understand the system which, involves, proper planning and using the adequate techniques to, get the system (PA) to bear fruit, by maintaining a proper long term understanding of the organizational environment and the organization as a whole. While in the process of this research the author was faced with vast views upon PA and its different aspects. There was vast material that was in contrary to giving PA a good image. This as a whole tends to prove that PA is very complex process and is also very difficult to do correctly. Special care should be taken when applying the Performance Appraisal System. As, different/relevant techniques can, differentiate between the system becoming a success or failure, special care has to be taken on how to approach the situation at hand. On the other hand, to enhance the usual lack of communication the PA process should take place more freq uently rather than the frequently used Annual system. The more frequent the appraisals, the better chances of the performance becoming better. The PA system should also be considered as a way to enhance worker performance and motivation rather than only being a tool being used as a guideline with regard to compensation along with promotions or demotions.

NCAA Drug Testing - 707 Words

The use of illegal substances is rapidly increasing in the college sports due to the expansion of supplements used by athletes that are being banned. In a study done, athletes were asked if illicit drugs would negatively impact their performance. Majority of them responded â€Å"yes†, their main reasoning being; the effects of illicit drugs were both mental and physically damaging. Illicit drugs come in many forms, but the testing procedures are all the same for any substance. There is almost always a consequence with the use of prohibited substances. Drug testing is appropriate to help ensure the safety of student athletes while they participate in intercollegiate contests. (Krotee, M 555). Before a contestant participates in the sport that he or she is anticipating, they first, must sign consent to participate in drug testing. This is a document that they must sign, which states that they are subject to random drug test, they must comply or suffer the consequences of not par ticipating. There are many categorizes of drugs, such as; stimulants, which can induce temporary improvements in both mental and physical function. Anabolic agents, which scored a 1.1% usagea at the college level,in the Study of Substance Use and Abuse habits(Green). Steroids are mostly taken by men, because they act as a testosterone. Caffeine, which is both a diuretic and a stimulant. caffeine is illegal in excessive amounts of 3-13 mg/kg of body weight(Maria). This much caffeine may improve ones resultsShow MoreRelatedPerformance Enhancing Drugs in Sports1207 Words   |  5 PagesThe growth and use of performance enhancing drugs makes them no longer a taboo subject among professional athletes, and is starting to become in fact rampant among athletes. 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Mobile Phone and Children Free Essays

Should children be allowed to own and use mobile phones? Mobile phones keep children safe Mobile phones keep children safer, as it is easier for parents to stay in touch with their children and for children to contact someone in an emergency. Through calls and texts, parents can know where their child is and be reassured that he or she is safe; all the while their children know they are never more than a phone call away from help. As Leslie Sharpe argues, ‘I wanted to ensure that they had a way of contacting me in an emergency’. We will write a custom essay sample on Mobile Phone and Children or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is, however, true that some children carrying the most sophisticated or ‘Smart’ phones are more susceptible to being robbed, but thieves are always after something new. Phones now are both much more widespread and security coded, so the benefits to thieves are no longer as great or immediate. Traffic accidents that are the result of children being distracted by their phones while walking across roads should be blamed on bad safety education rather than on the actual phones. Ultimately, mobile phones provide parents and young people with peace of mind and children with a safety net in emergencies, whether calling parents or the emergency services. Children should be comfortable with modern technology Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is now a normal part of modern life, used by everyone from toddlers to pensioners. So children need to grow up making use of technology such as mobile phones if they are to be able to fully participate in contemporary society. The average age at which children get their first mobile phone is eight according to a recent study. To prevent a child from having a mobile phone at that age is to put them at a clear social disadvantage compared with their peers. Mobile phone use develops skills for the modern workplace with its need for tech-savvy employees with communication skills and the ability to work flexibly. In any case, children often have better phone manners than adults – they are less likely to shout into the phone, more likely to text discreetly, and more aware of text and phone etiquette. Such manners are the direct consequence of familiarity with the device and an understanding of appropriate use in certain contexts. Mobile phones encourage the development of independence and interpersonal skills Education is as much about the growth in character and dealing with risks as it is the accumulation of knowledge; mobile phones provide for children a means to converse with peers, develop friendships and resolve disputes, all within minutes of each other, night and day. For them, ‘getting a cell phone is a step towards independence and a status symbol among their friends’. The confidence and self-esteem derived from having a mobile phone cannot be underappreciated, as proven by the corresponding negative impact of losing one’s phone. An Independent study in 2004 found that 55 per cent of people cited ‘keeping in touch with friends or family as the main reason for being wedded to their handsets’. Furthermore, the increasing potential of smart phones facilitates the accessing of information in real-time and on the move; a determined child with a grasp of the potential of their mobile phone can illuminate themselves on matters like directions to destinations, opening times for activities and immediate weather forecasts. With such information, children can begin to reason with each other and make decisions without resort to more mature advice. Schools can implement programs to encourage responsible and considerate mobile phone use All technological platforms have the potential to be abused or act as a negative medium, what is important is that children are taught to use their mobile phones responsibly. Schools should introduce programs and classes that teach children not only how important the devices are to their personal safety, but also how to exploit the advantages of the software. All children with sufficiently smart mobile phones should know how to find out where they are at any given time using map functions, and how to use the internet to find information on the go but to be vary of revealing their location to others and possible commercial exploitation of certain location based services. This advice should be taught alongside warnings about the limits of mobile phone technology, ensuring that the children don’t trust them blindly but use them as verification tools or means of starting enquiries. What should emerge is an environment where phones can be used as teaching tools and facilitating social cohesion rather than simply being a distraction in class. There are long-term health risks to mobile phone use Mobile phones are medically safe for children to use – we should ignore scare stories in the media. The latest research has not proved that mobile phones damage brain cells. Ed Yong, head of health information at Cancer Research UK, has been quoted as saying ‘the risk of brain cancer is similar in people ho use mobile phones compared to those who don’t, and rates of this cancer (glioma) have not gone up in recent years despite a dramatic rise in phone use during the 1980s’. Furthermore, the European Union’s public health body concluded in 2008 that ‘mobile phone use for less than ten years is not associated with cancer incidence. Regarding longer use, it was deemed difficult to make an estimate’. Even those earlier studies tha t suggested there might be a problem thought that people would have to use a cell phone for hours a day for there to be an effect. It is true that there is no 100% proof that mobile phones are safe to use, but that is true of any scientific study. Further investigation should be encouraged, but without conclusive proof, the benefits of mobile phone use will continue to far outweigh the costs. Mobile phones are too expensive for children Mobile phones are not too expensive for children – children use pocket money to buy credit and often inherit ‘hand-me-down’ handsets initially. As noted by the opposition, basic models are cheap and the subscription itself is at the mercy of the buyer. Parents can always say â€Å"no† or set limits on what the children can spend. With modern payment plans children can be given a set amount of credit for calls and texts. Learning to work within financial limits is an important part of growing up. In any case, many young people have part-time jobs so they are spending their own money, not their parents and learning to control use and financially managing phone use is a very good skill to learn. Nevertheless, even if it were the case that mobile phones are too expensive, that does not render their ability to keep children safe negligible, for one cannot place a price on a child’s safety. Mobile phones are inappropriate distractions in school Mobile phones are now a valuable part of student life. They can be used for ‘creating short movies, setting homework reminders, recording a teacher reading a poem and timing science experiments’. Moreover, because parents feel their children are safer carrying a phone, they are more likely to allow them to travel to school on their own rather than driving them. This promotes greater independence for the children, while taking traffic off the roads which is environmentally-friendly. Like many other things, mobiles can be distracting in class but this doesn’t mean they should be banned. Many chools allow – some actively encourage – phones to be carried providing they are turned off in lesson. Mobile phones are open to abuse Anything can be abused or used to harm other person, including pencils and paper. New technology carries some risks but we should not be rushed into panic measures. Children got hold of pornography, gambled and bullied each other lo ng before mobile phones were invented. The relationship between childhood and new mobile technologies is complex. These problems won’t go away if we ban phone use – they can only be dealt with through good parenting and moral education. In the meantime, parents can get phones which block inappropriate content, and ensure that their children do not have credit cards to pay for it. They should make sure that children know how to report abuse or what to do if they receive inappropriate material on the phone. An American company Disney Mobile is also one of an increasing number of phone makers who ‘provides families with mobile phones specifically designed for tweens, young teens and parents who want to keep an eye on them’. The potential for the abuse of mobile phones is low if parents are informed and vigilant and ensure they buy their children the right phone and right plan. How to cite Mobile Phone and Children, Papers

Showing cardiovascular and ventilatory responses at rest and during exercise free essay sample

Abstract Objective: The objective of this experiment is to analyse how the cardiovascular and respiratory parameters are affected by steady state exercise. Method: The experiment was split into two stages, rest and exercise. A spirometer, an ECG, a Douglas bag and a blood pressure monitor were used at rest on the subject. In the exercise phase a Douglas bag and the blood pressure monitor were used to measure the subject’s volume of air and blood pressure respectively. Results: A positive correlation was calculated for the heart rate, total volume, oxygen consumption, CO2 production, pCO2, and % of CO2, minute volume, ventilation rate, mean arterial pressure and the number of breaths when the subject was exercising. The pO2, the %O2 and the respiratory quotient showed a negative correlation in the exercise phase. There was no significant change in the diastolic pressure in the exercise phase. The change in tidal volume, the systolic pressure and the pulse pressure during the exercise phase showed to vary against theoretical values and would require further studies to explain these readings. Conclusion: In conclusion many of the parameters that were calculated supported previous experiments; however the tidal volume, the systolic, diastolic and the pulse pressure were not conclusive enough to observe any significant trend. Introduction The human body is a complex machine with many mysteries yet to discover. When the human genome project finished we had learnt much about our DNA and how complex the structure is. We had just scratched the service of our true potential. Our DNA plays a major role in whether we have a good or poor cardiovascular system. This is also the same for our respiratory system. Environmental factors also contribute to how effective our cardiovascular and respiratory system can be. Every so often people from different ethnic backgrounds complete against each other in events such as the Olympics and World athletic championship. Studies have shown that when exercise begins there is a rise in the cardiac output that is a consequence of an increase in the stroke volume and heart rate due to the increase in blood circulation, there is a redistribution of the blood to the working muscle by vasodilation and vasoconstriction of the arterioles (coote, 1995). With this the body adapts to changes during steady state exercise to optimise the performance and to prevent any injuries than can occur. Steady state exercise is when the body is performing at a moderate level of exercise producing a balance between production of lactic acid and the removal of lactic acid through oxidation (Thompson, 2008) Exercising on a daily basis results in an individual maintaining a healthy and balance lifestyle. A study in North America showed a group of elderly individuals between the ages of 55 to 70 performed aerobic exercises for four months. The results showed that the experimental group improved their maximal oxygen consumption by 27% (Steinhaus, 1983). This study shows that even at senior age, exercises improves the resting heart rate, systolic blood pressure at rest, sleep habits, well being, hemodynamic and overall lifestyle changes. This study also included anaerobic exercises which too showed an improvement of the individual’s health. On some occasions the production of lactic acid exceeds the removal of lactic acid. This usually occurs when the VO2max is between 55% and 65% in healthy and untrained athlete, however in highly trained endurance athletes this value can reach at 80% (McArdle, Katch Katch, 2006). This is known as the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA), which refers to the level of lactate in the blood reaching around 4mM. L-1. Exercise physiologist traditionally used VO2max as the main benchmark to measure endurance exercise. This however does not fully explain all aspect of the athlete’s ability to do well in a race. An experienced long distance athlete commonly trains slightly above the point of OBLA (McArdle et al. , 2006). Currently measuring exercise intensity by the OBLA has been a more effective and accurate way in indicating the individual’s level of fitness (McArdle et al. , 2006) The causes for OBLA have not been conclusively proven; as many believe it represent the point of muscle hypoxia which is when there is an inadequate supply of oxygen that is being sent to the muscles (McArdle et al. , 2006, p 320). However the muscle lactate accumulation does not necessarily coincides with hypoxia, because the lactate in the blood can be formed even when there is a sufficient supply of oxygen. Nevertheless the imbalance between the production and elimination of lactate in the blood can cause OBLA (McArdle et al. , 2006). In this experiment the aims were to use different equipment to measure a range of cardiovascular and respiratory parameters and to investigate the ways in how the body of a healthy young individual responds to the changes when undertaking aerobic exercise at a stead state level at different intensities. The cardiovascular parameters were the heart rate, mean arterial pressure, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, pulse pressure and the subject cardiac rhythm using an electrocardiogram. The respiratory parameters were the tidal volume, vital capacity, oxygen and CO2 percentage, the number of breath in each minute, ventilation rate, oxygen consumption, CO2 production, the respiratory quotient and to analyse how the aerobic response changes at different intensities. Material and method This experiment was performed by using the guideline set in the University of Hertfordshire ‘Level 1 Human Physiology Practical Booklet’ code number 1LFS003. The following changes were made and these amendments were about the level of resistance. At level two the exercise power was changed from 80W to 75W and the same went for level three from 110W to 100W. And instead of using only two levels that were indicated in the practical booklet at page 20, a third level was initiated which had a workload of 75W. When using the spirometry, instead of using a counter-balance gas holder with a writing pen attached to the counterweight, all spirometry parameters were recorded using the computer and the subject just has to inspire and expire through a tube that is connected to the computer. Results The subject’s BMI was calculated using his height and weight measured before the start of the experiment. The total practical time was three hours in which the first hour was used to measure the control variables and ECG. The remaining two hours were used to test the different physical levels and write down the data. The %O2 was measured in the Douglas bag decreased as the intensity of the exercise increased; while the %CO2 was increasing resulting in the pCO2 and the pO2 to increase and decrease respectively. Both the O2 consumption and the CO2 production increased with each level; however the rate of CO2 production was greater than the rate of O2 consumption causing the respiratory quotient to be higher than one. The number of breaths where increasing as the intensity of the exercise increased, but the value for the control was higher than each level. This caused the total volume of air in the Douglas bag to increase but the total volume of the control was higher than level one but not for level two or three. As the volume of air increased so did the ventilation rate and the minute volume. However the tidal volume did not have a linear pattern. Between the control and level one there was a sharp increase in the tidal volume, but during level two and three the tidal volume started to decrease. Figure 1 shows the CO2 production and the O2 consumption at the different exercise intensity. There was a large increase in the subject’s heart rate from the control to level one and from level one to level two, but from level two to level three the heart rate started the plateau. Figure 2 show how each exercise power affected the heart rate of the subject. The systolic pressure increased dramatically from the control to level one. But there was a decrease in the systolic blood pressure from level one to level two and eventually a rise in the systolic blood pressure from level two to level three. The diastolic pressure decreased from the control to level one and from level one to level two the diastolic blood pressure increased. At level two to level three the diastolic pressure decreased. Both the diastolic blood pressure at level one and three was lower than the control value, which caused the pulse pressure to be similar during level one and three but the pulse pressure during level two was very different. With the changes of the blood pressure that occurred during each level the mean arterial pressure increased gradually from the control to level three. Figure 3 shows how the blood pressures were affected by the change in the exercise intensity Before the exercise we tested the subject’s lung function by using a spirometer. Figure 4 shows the respiratory parameters of the spirograph. The ratio of the force vital capacity (FVC) and the force vital capacity expired in one second (FEV1. 0) was above the normal value of 85% (McArdle et al. , 2006, p 298). An electrocardiogram was also carried out to determine the subject’s heart rate and to analyse each wave of a single cardiac cycle. Figure 5 shows the ECG of the subject showing the different waves in a single cardiac cycle. The T wave represents the repolarisation of the ventricles, the P wave represents the depolarisation of the atria, the QRS complex is the depolarisation of both ventricles, as the ventricles is larger in size than the atria; the QRS complex has a larger peak and trough. The RR interval is the time taken for the R wave to appear again on the ECG (Fox, 2011). The ECG shows that the subject has a normal heart rate subjected to his age. Discussion Our major findings is that there is a decreasing trend in pO2, %O2, the respiratory quotient, and the diastolic blood pressure while there is an increasing trend in pCO2, %CO2, heart rate, systolic and mean arterial pressure, all respiratory parameters except for the O2 levels. As the exercise power increased the %O2 and the pO2 decreased which causes the working muscles to require more oxygen to keep up with the demands of the aerobic intensity. However the level of expired CO ­2 that is collected in the Douglas bag increased as the intensity increased. This is due to the increase production of CO2 in the working muscles during respiration. In all, the level of oxygen consumed and CO2 produced caused the respiratory quotient to be slightly above one. The respiratory quotient is the ratio between the total amounts of CO2 that is being produced to the amount of oxygen needed (McArdle et al. , 2006, p 240). During the exercise phase, the subject was catabolising the carbohydrates that he consumed prior to the experiment. As the values are very close to one, all the calories were derived from the carbohydrates that the subject consumed (McArdle et al. , 2006) The subject’s tidal volume increased from the control to level 1 where there was a peak at level one. The increase in the tidal volume from the control to level one was when the ‘demand for energy increases, the tidal volume increases by expanding into both the inspiratory reserve and the expiratory reserve’ (Smith Plowman, 2008). However during level two and three the tidal volume started to decrease. This cannot be explained as sources say that exercising actually increases the tidal volume (Garrett Kirkendall, 2000) and so further investigation is needed to be performed at different exercise power. The spirometer was used to measure the subject’s lung function and this instrument would have indicated if there are any obstructions present in the airways. By using the ratio between the FVC and FEV1. 0, the subject can be identified in having any lung obstruction or none at all (McArdle et al. , 2006). The spirometer produced an accurate value of the tidal volume at rest, while using the Douglas bag breathing forcefully can overinflate the bag which can produce an overestimation of the tidal volume. Also determining the number of breaths was difficult as the non returning breathing valve was moving very quickly to accurately count it. The parameters that were measured were the total lung capacity, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, vital capacity, functional residual capacity and tidal volume. The value of the subject’s tidal volume using the spirometer was 1. 5L. This value exceeds the average value of 500ml which has been given in many different studies of a young adult male (Normal breathing, 2010). This shows that the subject has a large lung capacity, indicating that the subject has maintained a good level of fitness. During exercise the heart rate increased due to the CO2 levels stimulating the chemoreceptors in the aortic arch which overall results in an individual inspiring more O ­Ã‚ ­2 and expiring CO2 quickly (McArdle et al. , 2006). With an increase in the heart rate the systolic pressure of the blood vessels also increased. Systolic pressure is the pressure in the aorta when the ventricles are contracting’ (McArdle et al. , 2006, p334), and due to the heart rate increasing at each level the systolic pressure correlates to the change in the heart rate. The diastolic pressure is the filling of blood to the arteries when the muscles are contracting. The trend, with the value at level two ignored, see that as the exercise power increases the diastolic pressure decreases. This is because the blood vessels dilate which in turn reduced the diastolic pressure (R. Noah, personal communication, June 7, 2000). The mean arterial pressure is the average blood pressure of an individual during a cardiac cycle. The value of the mean arterial pressure increased gradually when the exercise intensity increased because of the systolic pressure increasing at a greater rate than the diastolic pressure, which deceased relatively slow. The ECG and the blood pressure monitor were used to measure the subject’s heart rate and blood pressure respectively. Both ECG and the blood pressure monitor measured the heart rate as similar values when the subject was not exercising. While the blood pressure monitor only measures the heart rate, the ECG is used to detect if the patient’s heart is beating normally. The results from the ECG indicate the subject’s heart is beating at a normal rate and rhythm. However during the practical the value of the blood pressure during level 2 did not match with the other levels and the control. The systolic pressure was lower than the systolic pressure of the control. This is due to an error that was occurring with the machine when the subject’s blood pressure was being measured and the fact that the subject was perspiring which caused the machine to slip, making it difficult to acquire an appropriate reading. With the error present at level two the value for the mean arterial pressure was also an anomaly. To make sure how results were reliable a second reading for each level was planned however, there was a time constraint which prevented the use of calculating an average. During the beginning of the practical, the subject found it difficult to maintain the speed of 50 rpm which was prescribed in the practical booklet, which could have made the value inaccurate. Some other areas where this experiment can go further is the difference in the respiratory and cardiovascular parameters between different gender groups. They have been a few studies with regards to male and female such Leddy, Horvath, Rowland Pendergest (1997) which mentions the effects of a high or low fat diet on the cardiovascular factor between female and male runners. Another factor to consider is the use of age and how that affects the cardiovascular and respiratory parameters. Introducing subjects who have illnesses such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or other cardiovascular co-morbidities would show how the heart is working when it is damaged. The one problem is that the subjects would need careful monitoring by healthcare professional. As this experiment was focussing on the aerobic exercise, an anaerobic experiment can be implemented with subjects that are trained athletes and untrained athletes to see the difference in their cardiovascular and respiratory parameters. You could also include male and female subjects with the similar athletic background to perform some anaerobic experiments to see if there are any significant differences between the two. You could also introduce different ethnic groups and see if there is any significant difference in the results. Reference Coote, J. H. (1995): Cardiovascular responses to exercise: central and reflex contributions in JORDAN, D. , and MARSHALL, J. (Eds): Cardiovascular regulation (Portland, London, 1995), Garrett, W. E. , Kirkendall, D. T. (2000). Exercise and sport science. Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams Wilkins Leddy, J Horvath, P. , Rowland, J. Pendergast D. (1997) Effect of a high or a low fat diet on cardiovascular risk factors in male and female runners. . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29(1), 17-25 Normal breathing (2010) Amazing DIY breathing device. [online] Available at: http://www. normalbreathing. com/nb-word/DIY-device-short-2010. pdf [Accessed: 5 Jan 2013]. McArdle, W. D. , Katch, F. I. , Katch, V. L. (2006). Essential of Exercise Physiology. (3rd ed. ). Santa Barbara: Fitness Technology, Inc. McArdle, W. D. , Katch, F. I. , Katch, V. L. (2001). Exercise physiology: energy, nutrition, and human performance. Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Smith, D. L. Plowman, S. A. (2008) Exercise physiology for Health, Fitness and Performance. (2nd ed . ). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Steinhaus, L. A. (1983). Cardiovascular Response to Exercise Training in the Elderly. Unpublished thesis, University of Utah, Utah Thompson, G. , James, N. W. James, R. (2008). OCR PE for AS. Oxon: Bookpoint Ltd. Raizwan. N. (June 7, 2000). Blood pressure. Message posted on MadSci Network, archived at http://www. madsci. org/posts/archives/jun2000/960410763. Me. r. html. Appendix All the results that were made were placed into a table with each level indicated and the control as well. The table below shows the respiratory and cardiovascular parameters of the subject during rest and exercise. Table shows the cardiovascular and respiratory parameters of the subject at each level and the baseline of the O2  ­and the CO2 in the classroom. To calculate the mean arterial pressure you: As the mean arterial pressure indicates the average blood pressure of a human, the diastolic phase is longer than the systolic phase, hence the reason to multiply the diastolic pressure by two. By using the values of the blood pressure the mean arterial pressure can be calculated: The ventilation rate is the rate at which the air move into the lungs and out of the lungs. This can easily be calculated by the following equation: This is the value at the control level: When calculated the ventialtion rate it is more effective to calculate the mintue ventilation instead as this corresponds to the amount of air that enters and leaves the lung in one minute. This is also a pretty sraight forwards equation: The minute volmume is used to indicate a quantitive value to the minute ventilation as the minute volume is about the amount of air inspired and expired in one minute. The minute volume is the product of the tidal volume and the minute ventilation as shown in this equation: The partial pressure of the two gases, oxygen and CO2 are used to measuere the amount of oxygen and CO2 that are being expired by the body. The equations for the two gases are shown below: The oxygen consumption is the amount of oxygen that the person inspires and transported to the cells by haemoglobin. This is to measure the efficiency of the subject; how much oxygen is that person actually using? The equation is: The CO2 production is the amount of CO2 that is expired from the lungs by the process of gases exchange between oxygen and CO2. Through the process of respiration, the cells produce CO2 as a waste product, and with the help of diffusion, the pCO2 in the cells is higher than in the blood stream so diffusion takes place. The equation is: The respiratory quotient is used to measure what type of fuel the individual is consuming (McArdle et al. , 2006) and the equation is shown below. The peak expiratory flow is used to determine how fast the person is able to expire and is used to test the function of the lungs and to see if there are any obstructions are present. The equation and example are: The equation for the FEV1: FVC and example that was used during the experiment: To calculate the BMI: The value of the subject’s BMI was: